Masters vs PhD
At what point in my PhD can I master out? What requirements do I have to complete before doing so?
First, not all programs allow you to master out, so be sure it’s an option for your program. If it is, at the very least you’ll have to complete a sufficient amount of required coursework to master out. At the most, you’ll have to finish coursework and submit some type of abbreviated thesis to earn a Master's degree.
How do course requirements differ between a Masters and a PhD program?
This will vary a lot depending on the program. For both, expect to take at least one academic year’s worth of coursework. It is likely that additional specialized courses will be required for a PhD program to help you prepare to conduct your research, but not always the case. See here for a side-by-side comparison of a Masters vs a PhD in the Ecology Graduate Group at UC Davis.
How did you decide not to do a masters?
In general, folks may decide not to pursue a masters degree because it takes additional time and money to do so, because fewer masters degrees are fully funded, or because a PhD rather than a masters is the degree required for their career of choice. On the other hand, folks may choose to get a masters if they aren’t sure they want a PhD, if they want to explore a new field or career, or if they want additional research experience or to see what graduate school is like before pursuing a PhD.
“After I earned my bachelor's degree, I worked as a lab technician for two different labs to figure out exactly which types of research questions I was interested in answering in a graduate program. By that point, I felt that I had enough experience and knew what I wanted to do well enough that I didn’t need a masters degree to provide me with additional time or experience to decide if I wanted to do a PhD. I was also considering being a Professor as a career path, and I knew that I would need a PhD for that.” - Elena
“I think there are a lot of good reasons to do a Masters degree--not knowing what exactly you want to study, feeling like you want more research experience and time to gain more skills/become more competitive for PhDs, or not knowing if you want/need a PhD (or not wanting a PhD at all!). I was very lucky to find the field I wanted to be in pretty early on, about halfway through my 5 years as an undergraduate, and so by the time I was close to finishing my bachelor’s none of those applied to me. Between that and the fact that most Masters programs are not funded, it made more sense to me to go directly into a PhD program. Because I didn’t take a gap year and work as a research technician, I didn’t have any time to build up a financial safety net to live on during a Masters program.” -Katherine
What are the differences between professional and thesis-based masters programs?
A professional or non-thesis masters program requires only coursework and therefore typically takes less time to complete than masters programs that require a thesis. The courses may be structured more like undergraduate classes and focus on less primary literature than in a thesis-based program. If you want to develop more of a specialty in your field or learn more about a particular topic, then a professional masters is best for you, whereas if you are interested in publishing research findings, obtaining a PhD, or obtaining better research and writing skills, a thesis-based PhD might be a better choice. For more information, see this useful article comparing thesis vs non-thesis based programs.
Do you PhDs have a committee like a masters, where you have to get them to sign your thesis?
Yes, you have several committees during your time in a PhD program. Generally, you’ll have a qualifying exam committee of three to five people that helps you prepare your dissertation proposal and asks you questions during the QE. After your QE, you will have a dissertation committee of at least three people including your advisor who guide you during your dissertation, check in with you on your progress, and sign off on your thesis when it comes time to submit.
First, not all programs allow you to master out, so be sure it’s an option for your program. If it is, at the very least you’ll have to complete a sufficient amount of required coursework to master out. At the most, you’ll have to finish coursework and submit some type of abbreviated thesis to earn a Master's degree.
How do course requirements differ between a Masters and a PhD program?
This will vary a lot depending on the program. For both, expect to take at least one academic year’s worth of coursework. It is likely that additional specialized courses will be required for a PhD program to help you prepare to conduct your research, but not always the case. See here for a side-by-side comparison of a Masters vs a PhD in the Ecology Graduate Group at UC Davis.
How did you decide not to do a masters?
In general, folks may decide not to pursue a masters degree because it takes additional time and money to do so, because fewer masters degrees are fully funded, or because a PhD rather than a masters is the degree required for their career of choice. On the other hand, folks may choose to get a masters if they aren’t sure they want a PhD, if they want to explore a new field or career, or if they want additional research experience or to see what graduate school is like before pursuing a PhD.
“After I earned my bachelor's degree, I worked as a lab technician for two different labs to figure out exactly which types of research questions I was interested in answering in a graduate program. By that point, I felt that I had enough experience and knew what I wanted to do well enough that I didn’t need a masters degree to provide me with additional time or experience to decide if I wanted to do a PhD. I was also considering being a Professor as a career path, and I knew that I would need a PhD for that.” - Elena
“I think there are a lot of good reasons to do a Masters degree--not knowing what exactly you want to study, feeling like you want more research experience and time to gain more skills/become more competitive for PhDs, or not knowing if you want/need a PhD (or not wanting a PhD at all!). I was very lucky to find the field I wanted to be in pretty early on, about halfway through my 5 years as an undergraduate, and so by the time I was close to finishing my bachelor’s none of those applied to me. Between that and the fact that most Masters programs are not funded, it made more sense to me to go directly into a PhD program. Because I didn’t take a gap year and work as a research technician, I didn’t have any time to build up a financial safety net to live on during a Masters program.” -Katherine
What are the differences between professional and thesis-based masters programs?
A professional or non-thesis masters program requires only coursework and therefore typically takes less time to complete than masters programs that require a thesis. The courses may be structured more like undergraduate classes and focus on less primary literature than in a thesis-based program. If you want to develop more of a specialty in your field or learn more about a particular topic, then a professional masters is best for you, whereas if you are interested in publishing research findings, obtaining a PhD, or obtaining better research and writing skills, a thesis-based PhD might be a better choice. For more information, see this useful article comparing thesis vs non-thesis based programs.
Do you PhDs have a committee like a masters, where you have to get them to sign your thesis?
Yes, you have several committees during your time in a PhD program. Generally, you’ll have a qualifying exam committee of three to five people that helps you prepare your dissertation proposal and asks you questions during the QE. After your QE, you will have a dissertation committee of at least three people including your advisor who guide you during your dissertation, check in with you on your progress, and sign off on your thesis when it comes time to submit.
Taking a gap year
How did you decide whether to take time between undergrad and grad school? Was it hard to start grad school after taking a break?
There are several factors to consider when deciding whether to enter grad school right after undergrad or taking a break in between undergrad and grad school. First, if you are unsure about pursuing a graduate program, taking time off may help you make your decision by giving you extra time to try out different things or do more research about whether grad school is right for you. It could also allow you to develop additional skills, save money, or gain more research experience before grad school. On the other hand, delaying schooling ultimately delays your career, earning potential, and whatever life goals you have, and it is commonly said that the more time you take off, the harder it is to to back to school (but many people do so very successfully, so this shouldn’t discourage you if it’s what you want!).
"At the end of my undergrad experience, I asked several of my professors and other mentors whether they thought I would benefit from taking time off and they all said yes, so I did! I don’t regret it - I traveled, worked full time as a technician, and was able to take more time to think about exactly what I wanted for my research and my career. I was also very burnt out at the end of undergrad and think that taking time off benefited me hugely because of that. It wasn’t too difficult to transition from being a technician to being a graduate student, but taking a huge pay cut and having a lot more pressure to work all the time was challenging to cope with at first." - Elena
There are several factors to consider when deciding whether to enter grad school right after undergrad or taking a break in between undergrad and grad school. First, if you are unsure about pursuing a graduate program, taking time off may help you make your decision by giving you extra time to try out different things or do more research about whether grad school is right for you. It could also allow you to develop additional skills, save money, or gain more research experience before grad school. On the other hand, delaying schooling ultimately delays your career, earning potential, and whatever life goals you have, and it is commonly said that the more time you take off, the harder it is to to back to school (but many people do so very successfully, so this shouldn’t discourage you if it’s what you want!).
"At the end of my undergrad experience, I asked several of my professors and other mentors whether they thought I would benefit from taking time off and they all said yes, so I did! I don’t regret it - I traveled, worked full time as a technician, and was able to take more time to think about exactly what I wanted for my research and my career. I was also very burnt out at the end of undergrad and think that taking time off benefited me hugely because of that. It wasn’t too difficult to transition from being a technician to being a graduate student, but taking a huge pay cut and having a lot more pressure to work all the time was challenging to cope with at first." - Elena
Grad school courses
Can you take classes after your qualifying exam (QE)?
Typically by the time of your qualifying exam you have completed all of your required coursework and your focus shifts from classwork to research. However, many students will often continue to take some courses after their qualifying exam if the courses are especially relevant and/or interesting, and their schedule and advisor permits it.
How do courses differ from the ones that you take in undergrad?
Graduate school courses differ in several ways from undergrad courses. Graduate school courses are usually more specialized, and are often focused on bringing students up-to-date with the current research in a given field, rather than building basic foundations. Consequently, they are more likely to be structured around reading scientific papers than introductory textbooks. Graduate courses often rely less on busy work (i.e. little to no homework), and rely more on independent study. They are also usually smaller (e.g., 5-20 students) and are unlikely to have any teaching assistants (TAs). Graduate courses are often run as seminars, where there may be no exams and the grading is based more on participation and/or projects, and is often somewhat perfunctory.
Can credit for masters coursework transfer to a PhD?
Master’s coursework often doesn't count towards PhD course requirements, unless a student is continuing on at the same institution. Aside from the standard PhD course requirements that apply to every student in a given program, many programs also require graduate students to take remedial courses to fill any gaps in their background identified by their guidance committee. Successfully completing courses during undergrad or master's degree can eliminate the need to take these remedial courses while pursuing a PhD. Programs vary widely so it’s best to ask potential advisor(s) or the program coordinator wherever you are planning to apply about the course requirements and policies.
Typically by the time of your qualifying exam you have completed all of your required coursework and your focus shifts from classwork to research. However, many students will often continue to take some courses after their qualifying exam if the courses are especially relevant and/or interesting, and their schedule and advisor permits it.
How do courses differ from the ones that you take in undergrad?
Graduate school courses differ in several ways from undergrad courses. Graduate school courses are usually more specialized, and are often focused on bringing students up-to-date with the current research in a given field, rather than building basic foundations. Consequently, they are more likely to be structured around reading scientific papers than introductory textbooks. Graduate courses often rely less on busy work (i.e. little to no homework), and rely more on independent study. They are also usually smaller (e.g., 5-20 students) and are unlikely to have any teaching assistants (TAs). Graduate courses are often run as seminars, where there may be no exams and the grading is based more on participation and/or projects, and is often somewhat perfunctory.
Can credit for masters coursework transfer to a PhD?
Master’s coursework often doesn't count towards PhD course requirements, unless a student is continuing on at the same institution. Aside from the standard PhD course requirements that apply to every student in a given program, many programs also require graduate students to take remedial courses to fill any gaps in their background identified by their guidance committee. Successfully completing courses during undergrad or master's degree can eliminate the need to take these remedial courses while pursuing a PhD. Programs vary widely so it’s best to ask potential advisor(s) or the program coordinator wherever you are planning to apply about the course requirements and policies.
Variation in grad programs
How much does coursework vary across graduate programs?
Coursework can vary tremendously across graduate programs. Some programs have a “core” set of classes that are required for all students, while other programs rely more on individual committee recommendations. In some programs, the coursework is extensive and a major focus of the program, while in other programs the coursework may be minimal and designed solely around addressing academic deficiencies or helping students develop their chosen area of research. Most programs require students to complete some kind of quantitative course (e.g. statistics, modeling). You can find out more about the course requirements for individual programs by looking at their website or chatting with potential advisors and/or current students in the program.
What are some possible red flags for a PhD program?
There is no single “red flag” that is universal to everyone – what counts as a red flag to you depends on your values, needs, and goals. Some potential red flags to consider when choosing a PhD program are listed below. You may also identify your own red flags based on your values and needs related to a program.
Coursework can vary tremendously across graduate programs. Some programs have a “core” set of classes that are required for all students, while other programs rely more on individual committee recommendations. In some programs, the coursework is extensive and a major focus of the program, while in other programs the coursework may be minimal and designed solely around addressing academic deficiencies or helping students develop their chosen area of research. Most programs require students to complete some kind of quantitative course (e.g. statistics, modeling). You can find out more about the course requirements for individual programs by looking at their website or chatting with potential advisors and/or current students in the program.
What are some possible red flags for a PhD program?
There is no single “red flag” that is universal to everyone – what counts as a red flag to you depends on your values, needs, and goals. Some potential red flags to consider when choosing a PhD program are listed below. You may also identify your own red flags based on your values and needs related to a program.
- They only guarantee funding for 1-2 years or the funding is very low
- There is a low completion/high attrition rate
- Students often take 7-10 years to graduate
- There is a low rate of job placement after graduation
- Current students seem unhappy and/or overworked (e.g., required to TA too many class)
- There are very few graduate students (indicating they have a hard time recruiting or retaining students)
- There are very few junior faculty (indicating they have a hard time recruiting or retaining new/young faculty)
- Your visit to the school is poorly organized and/or it’s difficult to get timely, clear responses from the program staff (indicating the administration is not very helpful)
- The faculty in the program don’t seem to know each other very well or have negative relationships
- The faculty haven’t published anything in the last five years
- Students are rarely the first author on publications
- There is a lack of transparency surrounding funding, examinations, completion rates, etc.
- The culture seems toxic or unwelcoming or overly competitive
- There is a lack of diversity in the students and/or faculty
- There is known racism, sexual harassment, etc. in the program
- Other people have only negative things to say about the program, potential advisors, etc.
Managing your time
What does a good work-life balance look like in grad school?
There are as many different types of good work-life balance as there are individual graduate students! The key is determining your personal boundaries and finding what a healthy balance of activities looks like for you. If graduate school is your highest priority and you enjoy doing research, that may mean working on some weekends and evenings. If you have a disability, an additional job, childcare or other family responsibilities, etc., working fewer hours will be necessary to give yourself adequate time for rest and maintaining your mental and physical wellbeing. It is not uncommon for graduate students to overwork, especially if they are in a toxic lab environment, but overworking is not healthy and leads to burnout. One example that seems representative in ecology and evolution graduate programs is to work about 50 hours a week, or as one advisor put it, to treat graduate school like “a demanding full time job.” Make sure you have a conversation with potential advisors about expectations surrounding work hours before committing to a program or lab.
How do you structure your time in grad school?
This will vary a lot from person to person. I know many people who spend 90% or more of their time on research and do little else, and just as many people who either balance research and other activities continuously or prioritize outreach, teaching, or service in at least some parts of the year over their research. Some folks are interested in a teaching career or a government position, and may do internships or fellowships for months at a time that allow them to gain experience for their career of choice but require them to put a hold on research activities during that time. However, to remain in a PhD program, you must make sufficient progress on your research activities that your advisor and committee members find acceptable, or you risk being put on probation or dismissal from the program.
“Personally, the majority of my time is spent on research, but the exact number of hours I spend on research varies depending on the time of year. I do work on plant ecology, evolution, and genetics, so I structure my year around timing experiments that have to be done in the summer or spring to work with plants in the field or greenhouse. When I have experiments or field work running, usually 50-100% of my time is spent maintaining the experiments and collecting data. When I’m not doing field or experiment work, if I have a deadline for a presentation, grant proposal, or paper, I will spend a lot more time leading up to those deadlines working on specific tasks like finishing an analysis or doing literature review. During the academic year, if I’m a teaching assistant, that will take up about half of my work hours. On average, I spend 20 hours per week on research, and the rest of my time (~30 hours per week) is taken up with outreach, administrative, professional development, service, and fun activities.” - Elena
“Over my PhD, I’ve found that my mental health relies on a stable routine and regular breaks. I work 40 hours a week, and take evenings and weekends off. Because of that time spent intentionally away from work, when I sit down to get my work done, I’m more motivated and more excited, rather than forcing myself to work until I’m exhausted every day. And consequently I’m more productive! :) In terms of my research time vs teaching time vs service commitments, I tend to work best in long, uninterrupted blocks of time, and fortunately, the courses that I work in as a teaching assistant (TA) tend to support that. What that looks like in practice is that I have about two to three quarters per year that I have a lot of time to do my research (which is a mix of lab work with live fishes and computational work, as well as writing), and then one quarter each year I TA for a very intensive class and get relatively little research progress in.” -Katherine
There are as many different types of good work-life balance as there are individual graduate students! The key is determining your personal boundaries and finding what a healthy balance of activities looks like for you. If graduate school is your highest priority and you enjoy doing research, that may mean working on some weekends and evenings. If you have a disability, an additional job, childcare or other family responsibilities, etc., working fewer hours will be necessary to give yourself adequate time for rest and maintaining your mental and physical wellbeing. It is not uncommon for graduate students to overwork, especially if they are in a toxic lab environment, but overworking is not healthy and leads to burnout. One example that seems representative in ecology and evolution graduate programs is to work about 50 hours a week, or as one advisor put it, to treat graduate school like “a demanding full time job.” Make sure you have a conversation with potential advisors about expectations surrounding work hours before committing to a program or lab.
How do you structure your time in grad school?
This will vary a lot from person to person. I know many people who spend 90% or more of their time on research and do little else, and just as many people who either balance research and other activities continuously or prioritize outreach, teaching, or service in at least some parts of the year over their research. Some folks are interested in a teaching career or a government position, and may do internships or fellowships for months at a time that allow them to gain experience for their career of choice but require them to put a hold on research activities during that time. However, to remain in a PhD program, you must make sufficient progress on your research activities that your advisor and committee members find acceptable, or you risk being put on probation or dismissal from the program.
“Personally, the majority of my time is spent on research, but the exact number of hours I spend on research varies depending on the time of year. I do work on plant ecology, evolution, and genetics, so I structure my year around timing experiments that have to be done in the summer or spring to work with plants in the field or greenhouse. When I have experiments or field work running, usually 50-100% of my time is spent maintaining the experiments and collecting data. When I’m not doing field or experiment work, if I have a deadline for a presentation, grant proposal, or paper, I will spend a lot more time leading up to those deadlines working on specific tasks like finishing an analysis or doing literature review. During the academic year, if I’m a teaching assistant, that will take up about half of my work hours. On average, I spend 20 hours per week on research, and the rest of my time (~30 hours per week) is taken up with outreach, administrative, professional development, service, and fun activities.” - Elena
“Over my PhD, I’ve found that my mental health relies on a stable routine and regular breaks. I work 40 hours a week, and take evenings and weekends off. Because of that time spent intentionally away from work, when I sit down to get my work done, I’m more motivated and more excited, rather than forcing myself to work until I’m exhausted every day. And consequently I’m more productive! :) In terms of my research time vs teaching time vs service commitments, I tend to work best in long, uninterrupted blocks of time, and fortunately, the courses that I work in as a teaching assistant (TA) tend to support that. What that looks like in practice is that I have about two to three quarters per year that I have a lot of time to do my research (which is a mix of lab work with live fishes and computational work, as well as writing), and then one quarter each year I TA for a very intensive class and get relatively little research progress in.” -Katherine
Defining research projects
How do you avoid getting a project you don’t like?
Start a dialogue with your advisor and communicate early and often about your individual expectations and interests for your research project. Think carefully about what type of work you’d like to be doing and what is intellectually stimulating for you, and be sure to be honest with your advisor about these things. If you are applying for a lab specifically to work on a particular project, do your research and make sure you’re really excited about it before committing. However, even if you do all of the above, things can always change throughout your degree and you may lose interest in one topic or become much more excited about taking your research in a different direction, so there is always inherent risk in committing yourself to a specific project for the entirety of your degree.
How do you decide on a project: is it given to you, do you come up with it?
The answer to this will be program and lab-dependent. Much of the time, when you enter a graduate program you’ll be expected to develop your own research questions and projects, and your PI will consider that to be an important component of your training and intellectual development. Sometimes, the Principal Investigator (PI) may advertise graduate positions that are specifically funded by a certain grant. However, even in these cases, the amount of intellectual freedom you’ll have will vary - sometimes the PI may hand a project to you and tell you exactly what to do, and other times they’ll work with you to come up with something that is entirely your own, as long as it falls under the general goals of the grant.
Is it easier to do interdisciplinary work/collaborate/change labs in interdisciplinary groups?
Every lab and interdisciplinary group has its own culture, so the answer is really "it depends." In interdisciplinary working groups, it's easier to develop relationships with other members of the group and therefore it is likely easier to strike up collaborations with those members or change labs to another PI in the group. However, if each party in the group is more interested in their own work, fails to communicate with other members of the group, or protects their self-interests more than those of the whole, that sort of negative/toxic culture is likely to make it more difficult (or undesirable) to work together.
"In my experience, yes to all of the above. I’ve worked in both very specialized, insular labs and very collaborative and interdisciplinary groups, and I’ve observed that in groups that are interested in collaboration and working across disciplines, it is easier to feel that you are part of a larger whole than when you are working in a lab that does highly specialized research on a very specific topic and/or does not show interest in collaborating with others within or across disciplines." - Elena
Start a dialogue with your advisor and communicate early and often about your individual expectations and interests for your research project. Think carefully about what type of work you’d like to be doing and what is intellectually stimulating for you, and be sure to be honest with your advisor about these things. If you are applying for a lab specifically to work on a particular project, do your research and make sure you’re really excited about it before committing. However, even if you do all of the above, things can always change throughout your degree and you may lose interest in one topic or become much more excited about taking your research in a different direction, so there is always inherent risk in committing yourself to a specific project for the entirety of your degree.
How do you decide on a project: is it given to you, do you come up with it?
The answer to this will be program and lab-dependent. Much of the time, when you enter a graduate program you’ll be expected to develop your own research questions and projects, and your PI will consider that to be an important component of your training and intellectual development. Sometimes, the Principal Investigator (PI) may advertise graduate positions that are specifically funded by a certain grant. However, even in these cases, the amount of intellectual freedom you’ll have will vary - sometimes the PI may hand a project to you and tell you exactly what to do, and other times they’ll work with you to come up with something that is entirely your own, as long as it falls under the general goals of the grant.
Is it easier to do interdisciplinary work/collaborate/change labs in interdisciplinary groups?
Every lab and interdisciplinary group has its own culture, so the answer is really "it depends." In interdisciplinary working groups, it's easier to develop relationships with other members of the group and therefore it is likely easier to strike up collaborations with those members or change labs to another PI in the group. However, if each party in the group is more interested in their own work, fails to communicate with other members of the group, or protects their self-interests more than those of the whole, that sort of negative/toxic culture is likely to make it more difficult (or undesirable) to work together.
"In my experience, yes to all of the above. I’ve worked in both very specialized, insular labs and very collaborative and interdisciplinary groups, and I’ve observed that in groups that are interested in collaboration and working across disciplines, it is easier to feel that you are part of a larger whole than when you are working in a lab that does highly specialized research on a very specific topic and/or does not show interest in collaborating with others within or across disciplines." - Elena
Questions about UC Davis
How have you enjoyed your experience at Davis in a PhD?
My experience has been largely positive. I think that it is difficult to do a graduate degree anywhere, and I have certainly faced challenges, but I feel that UC Davis and my graduate group in particular have many faculty who are advocates for graduate students and interested in working to make our experience better both at UC Davis and in graduate school generally. However, my experience has inevitably been shaped by my privileges as a cishet, white, upper middle class individual with parents who both got advanced degrees, and I know that others have had a more difficult and negative graduate experience in my program and my school (which is unfortunately the case in most if not all places).
What is the difference between the grad groups (specifically pop bio, ecology, plant biology)?
Graduate groups vary in size, course requirements, culture, career emphasis, and many other things that will impact your daily experience. To use the Ecology and Population Biology programs at UC Davis as an example:
My experience has been largely positive. I think that it is difficult to do a graduate degree anywhere, and I have certainly faced challenges, but I feel that UC Davis and my graduate group in particular have many faculty who are advocates for graduate students and interested in working to make our experience better both at UC Davis and in graduate school generally. However, my experience has inevitably been shaped by my privileges as a cishet, white, upper middle class individual with parents who both got advanced degrees, and I know that others have had a more difficult and negative graduate experience in my program and my school (which is unfortunately the case in most if not all places).
What is the difference between the grad groups (specifically pop bio, ecology, plant biology)?
Graduate groups vary in size, course requirements, culture, career emphasis, and many other things that will impact your daily experience. To use the Ecology and Population Biology programs at UC Davis as an example:
- They both incorporate some ecology, evolution, and animal behavior into their research
- Ecology has many more students, around 150, with both masters and doctoral students, whereas Pop Bio has 30-40 doctoral students only (no masters)
- In Ecology, you’re more likely to find students studying restoration, conservation, or other more applied types of biology, whereas Population Biology students tend to have a more basic research focus, although there is definitely variation
- Both programs are on average 5-7 years
- In Ecology, your first year will consist of classes that focus heavily on ecology and you’ll have exams at the end of each quarter, whereas in Pop Bio, you take classes on more interdisciplinary topics like evolution and genetics, there will be more a of a quantitative emphasis, and you’ll take one big exam at the end of your first year called the “core exam”
- Population Biology students have a more strict course schedule, with the small cohorts of 4-10 students taking a majority of their classes together and sharing an office. The Ecology graduate group has larger cohorts and students have more flexible schedules, supporting more broad and interdisciplinary research interests.
